Ndtyjky

Santali
	ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ
	; The word "Santali" in Ol Chiki script; ;
Native to	; India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan
Ethnicity	; Santal and Teraibasi Santali;
Native speakers	7.6 million (2011 census);
Language family	; Austroasiatic; ; Munda ; North Munda ; Kherwari Santali; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Dialects	; Mahali (Mahli); ;
Writing system	; Ol Chiki script, Devanagari, Eastern Nagari script, Roman script, Odia alphabet;
Official status
Official language in	; India;
Language codes
ISO 639-2	sat
ISO 639-3	Either:; sat – Santali; mjx – Mahali
Glottolog	; sant1410 Santali; maha1291 Mahali;

Santali (Ol Chiki: ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ) is a language in the Santal subfamily of Austroasiatic languages, related to Ho and Mundari, spoken mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal.^[5] It is a recognized regional language of India per the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.^[6] It is spoken by around 6.2 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, making it the third largest Austroasiatic language spoken.^[5]

The Ol Chiki script, also called Ol Cemet', Ol Ciki, or simply Ol, was invented by Pandit Raghunath Murmu in the first half of the 20th century CE to write Santali, a Munda language of India. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts.

History

According to linguist Paul Sidwell (2018), Munda languages probably arrived on coast of Odisha from Indochina about 4000–3500 years ago after Indo-Aryan migration to Odisha.^[7]

Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no written language and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the languages of India led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, Lars Skrefsrud and Paul Bodding. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.

The Ol Chiki script was created for Santali by Mayurbhanj poet Raghunath Murmu in 1925 and first publicized in 1939.^[8]^[9]

Ol chiki as Santali Script is widely accepted among Santal Communities, however presently in West Bengal, Odisha and Jharkhand, the Ol chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.^[10]^[11] However, users from Bangladesh use Eastern Nagari.

Geographic distribution

The concentrations of Santali speakers are in the Bhagalpur and Munger of south-eastern Bihar, Hazaribag, Manbhum of Jharkhand, Bankura, Birbhum district of West Bengal and in the Balasore District of Odisha. Santali speakers are also in Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura states.^[12]

Santali was spoken by over 6 million people across India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal.^[5] Most of its speakers live in India, the 2001 census listing 6,469,600 speakers in the states of Jharkhand (2.8 million), West Bengal (2.2 million), Odisha (0.70 million), Bihar (0.39 million), Assam (0.24 million), and a few thousand in each of Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura.

Official status

Santali is one of India's 22 scheduled languages.^[6]

Dialects

Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Karmali (Khole), Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.^[5]^[13]^[14]

Phonology

Consonants

Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur almost only in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ
Stop	voiceless	p (pʰ)	t (tʰ)	ʈ (ʈʰ)	c (cʰ)	k
Stop	voiced	b (bʱ)	d (dʱ)	ɖ (ɖʱ)	ɟ (ɟʱ) ⟨j jh⟩	ɡ (ɡʱ)
Fricative			s				h
Trill			r
Flap				ɽ
Lateral			l
Glide		w			j ⟨y⟩

In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.

Vowels

Santali has eight non-nasal and six nasal vowels.

	Front	Central	Back
High	i ĩ		u ũ
Mid-high	e	ə ə̃	o
Mid-low	ɛ ɛ̃		ɔ ɔ̃
Low		a ã

There are numerous diphthongs.

Morphology

Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing agglutinating language.

Nouns

Number

Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.

Singular	seta.	'dog'
Dual	seta-bariya	'two dogs'
Plural	seta-ko	'dogs'

Case

The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:

Case	Marker	Function
Nominative	-Ø	Subject and object
Genitive	-rɛn (animate) -ak', -rɛak' (inanimate)	Possessor
Comitative	-ʈhɛn/-ʈhɛc'	goal, place
Instrumental-Locative	-tɛ	Instrument, cause, motion
Sociative	-são	Association
Allative	-sɛn/-sɛc'	Direction
Ablative	-khɔn/-khɔc'	Source, origin
Locative	-rɛ	Spatio-temporal location

Possession

Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person -ɲ, 2nd person -m, 3rd person -t. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.

Pronouns

The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.

		Singular	Dual	Plural
First person	Exclusive	iń	ɘliɲ	alɛ
First person	Inclusive		alaṅ	abo
Second person		am	aben	apɛ
Third person	Anaphoric	ac'	ɘkin	ako
Third person	Demonstrative	uni	unkin	oṅko

The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.

	Animate	Inanimate
Referential	ɔkɔe	oka
Non-referential	cele	cet'

The indefinite pronouns are:

	Animate	Inanimate
'any'	jãheã	jãhã
'some'	adɔm	adɔmak
'another'	ɛʈak'ic'	ɛʈak'ak'

The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.

Simple	Animate	Inanimate
Proximate	nui	noa
Distal	uni	ona
Remote	həni	hana

Particular	Animate	Inanimate
Proximate	nii	niə
Distal	ini	inə
Remote	enko	inəko

Numerals

The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)^[15] are:

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	20	100
ᱢᱤᱫ mit'	ᱵᱟᱨ bar	ᱯᱮ pɛ	ᱯᱩᱱ pon	ᱢᱚᱬᱮ mɔ̃ɽɛ̃	ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ turui	ᱮᱭᱟᱭ eae	ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ irəl	ᱟᱨᱮ arɛ	ᱜᱮᱞ gɛl	ᱤᱥᱤ isi	ᱥᱟᱭ sae

The numerals are used with numeral classifiers. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. babar 'two each'.

Verbs

Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject.

Subject markers

		Singular	Dual	Plural
First person	Exclusive	-ɲ(iɲ)	-liɲ	-lɛ
First person	Inclusive		-laŋ	-bon
Second person		-m	-ben	-pɛ
Third person		-e	-kin	-ko

Object markers

Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.

		Singular	Dual	Plural
First person	Exclusive	-iɲ-	-liɲ-	-lɛ-
First person	Inclusive		-laŋ-	-bon-
Second person		-me-	-ben-	-pɛ-
Third person		-e-	-kin-	-ko-

Syntax

Santali is an SOV language, though topics can be fronted.

Influence on other languages

Santali, belonging to the Austroasiatic family, has retained its distinct identity and co-existed with languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan family, in Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and other states. This affiliation is generally accepted, but there are many cross-questions and puzzles.

Borrowing between Santali and other Indian languages has not yet been studied fully. In modern Indian languages like Western Hindi the steps of evolution from Midland Prakrit Sauraseni could be traced clearly. In the case of Bengali such steps of evolution are not always clear and distinct, and one has to look at other influences that moulded Bengali's essential characteristics.

A notable work in this field was initiated by linguist Byomkes Chakrabarti in the 1960s. Sri Chakrabarti investigated the complex process of assimilation of Austroasiatic family, particularly Santali elements, into Bengali. He showed the overwhelming influence of Bengali on Santali. His formulations are based on the detailed study of two-way influences on all aspects of both languages and tried to bring out the unique features of the languages. More research is awaited in this area.

Notable linguist Khudiram Das authored the 'Santali Bangla Samasabda Abhidhan' (সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. 'Bangla Santali Bhasha Samparka (বাংলা সাঁওতালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক) is a collection of essays in E-book format authored by him and dedicated to linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.

Rising significance of Santali

Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the University Grants Commission of India decided to introduce the language in the National Eligibility Test to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.^[16]

References

^ "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2018-07-07..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}

^ Santali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
Mahali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)

^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Santali". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Mahali". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

^ ^a^b^c^d Santhali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Mahali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)

^ ^a^b "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages". censusindia.gov.in. Census of India. 20 May 2013.

^ Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May 22, 2018.

^ Hembram, Phatik Chandra (2002). Santhali, a Natural Language. U. Hembram. p. 165.

^ Kundu, Manmatha (1994). Tribal Education, New Perspectives. Gyan Publishing House. p. 37. ISBN 9788121204477.

^ "Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali)". Scriptsource.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

^ "Santali Localization". Andovar.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

^ https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat

^ "Glottolog 3.2 - Santali". glottolog.org.

^ "Santali: Paharia language". Global recordings network. Retrieved 26 February 2018.

^ "Santali". The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany). 2001. Retrieved 27 November 2017.

^ Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013

External links

"We Santhals" web types language keyboard download

National Translation Mission's (NTM) Santali Pages

OLAC resources in and about the Santali language

OLAC resources in and about the Mahali language

http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)

http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-A6AF-2@view Santali language in RWAAI Digital Archive

[1] "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2018-07-07..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}

[e21-2] Santali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
Mahali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)

[Glottolog-3] Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Santali". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

[Glottolog2-4] Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Mahali". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

[e18-5] Santhali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Mahali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)

[2001census-6] "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages". censusindia.gov.in. Census of India. 20 May 2013.

[7] Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May 22, 2018.

[Hembram-8] Hembram, Phatik Chandra (2002). Santhali, a Natural Language. U. Hembram. p. 165.

[Kundu94-9] Kundu, Manmatha (1994). Tribal Education, New Perspectives. Gyan Publishing House. p. 37. ISBN 9788121204477.

[scriptsource-10] "Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali)". Scriptsource.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

[andovar-11] "Santali Localization". Andovar.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

[12] ttps://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat

[13] "Glottolog 3.2 - Santali". glottolog.org.

[GRN-14] "Santali: Paharia language". Global recordings network. Retrieved 26 February 2018.

[15] "Santali". The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany). 2001. Retrieved 27 November 2017.

[16] Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013

v t e Languages of Bangladesh
Official language	Bengali
Semiofficial language	English
Indo-European	Bengali dialects Bihari (Urdu) Bishnupriya Chakma Chittagonian Rangpuri Rohingya Sadri Sylheti Hajong
Sino-Tibetan	Arakanese A'Tong Bawm Falam Garo Haka Khumi Koch Kokborok Megam Meitei (Manipuri) Mizo Mru Pangkhu Rengmitca Sak Shö Tanchangya
Austroasiatic	Khasi Koda Mundari Pnar Santali War-Jaintia
Dravidian	Kurukh Malto

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Santali language

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